Table 3 Generic characteristics of energy storage systems [104,105,106,107,108,109]
ESS Type | Efficiency (%) | Response time | No of Cycles | Lifetime (years) | Specific energy (Wh/kg) | Energy cost ($/kWh | Self-discharge (%/day) | Application |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BESS | 75–90 | Milli-seconds(ms) | 500–4000 | 5–10 | 90–200 | 150–2500 | 1–20 | Frequency control and regulation |
PHES | 60–95 | Minutes | 10,000–30,000 | 30–60 | 0.5–1.5 | 600–2000 |  ~ 0 | Used as spinning reserves, provides voltage stability support |
FES | 70–95 |  < 10 ms | 3000–5000 | 20–30 | 5–200 | 1000–5000 | 20–100 | Used to maintain power quality, and for frequency regulation |
SCES | 85–98 |  < 10 ms | 105–2 × 107 | 10–15 | 0.1–15 | 300–200 | 2–40 | Mitigate voltage instability, and provides frequency control |